ಹಣಕಾಸು ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಮತ್ತು ನಿರ್ವಹಣೆ - ೩೪

ಈ ಹಿಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ  ನಾವು PnL ನ ಮುಖ್ಯ ಶೀರ್ಷಿಕೆಗಳ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಅರಿಯಲು ಆರಂಭಿಸಿದೆವು. ಇಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ಅದನ್ನೇ ಮುಂದುವರಿಸೋಣ. 

ನ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಚರ್ಚೆಯನ್ನು ಮುಂದುವರಿಸುತ್ತಾ ಹೇಗೆ ಈ ಆದಾಯವು ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಕಾರ್ಯಗಳಿಂದ ಉಂಟಾಗುವುದು ಎಂದು ಅರಿಯೋಣ. ಆದರೆ ಕಂಪನಿಯು ಬ್ಯಾಂಕ್ ಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಇಟ್ಟ ಹಣದಿಂದ ಕೂಡ ಬಡ್ಡಿಯ ರೂಪದಲ್ಲಿ ಆದಾಯ ಸಿಗುವುದು. ಇದನ್ನು ಕೂಡ ಪರಿಗಣಿಸಬೇಕು. ಇದನ್ನು "Other Incomes" ನ ಶೀರ್ಷಿಕೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ತೋರಿಸುವರು. ಇದರ ಜೊತೆಗೆ ಯಾವುದಾದರು ಆಸ್ತಿಯನ್ನು ಒಮ್ಮೆ ಮಾರಿದರೆ ಅದನ್ನು ಬೇರೆಡೆ ತೋರಿಸುವುದಿಲ್ಲ. ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಅದನ್ನು "Extraordinary Income" ಶೀರ್ಷಿಕೆಯ ಅಡಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ತೋರಿಸುವರು. 

ಈಗ ನಾವು ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಎಲ್ಲ ರೀತಿಯ ಆದಯಗಳನ್ನು ಒಟ್ಟುಗೂಡಿಸಿದೆವು. ಇದನ್ನು ಒಟ್ಟಾಗಿ "Earnings before Interest and Taxes" ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯುವರು. ಇದನ್ನೇ ಚಿಕ್ಕದಾಗಿ "EBIT" ಹೀಗೆ ಉಪಯೋಗಿಸುವರು. ಈ ಹೆಸರು ಬರಲು ಕಾರಣವು ಕೂಡ ಸರಳವಾಗಿ ಅರಿವಾಗುವುದು. ಏಕೆಂದರೆ ನಾವು ಕಂಪನಿಯು ತೆರ ಬೇಕಾದ ತೆರಿಗೆ ಮತ್ತು ಬಡ್ಡಿಯನ್ನು ಇನ್ನು ಪರಿಗಣಿಸಿಲ್ಲ. 

ಕಂಪನಿಯು ಸಾಲವಾಗಿ ಪಡೆದ ಹಣದ ಬಡ್ಡಿಯನ್ನು ಆದಾಯದಿಂದ ಕಳೆಯಬೇಕು. ಹೀಗೆ ಕಳೆದು ಸಿಗುವುದಕ್ಕೆ  Net profit before tax - NPBT ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯುವರು. ಕೊನೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ತೆರಿಗೆಯನ್ನು ಕಳೆದ ಮೇಲೆ ಉಳಿಯುವ ಲಾಭವನ್ನು ನಿವ್ವಳ ಲಾಭ Net profit after tax - NPAT ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯುವೆವು. 

ಈ ಉಳಿದ ಲಾಭದ ಹಣದಲ್ಲಿ ಸ್ವಲ್ಪ ಭಾಗವನ್ನು ಡಿವಿಡೆಂಡ್ ಗಳನ್ನು ನೀಡಲು ಉಪಯೋಗಿಸುವರು. ಆದರೆ ಇದು ಶೇರ್ ದಾರರ ವಾರ್ಷಿಕ ಸಭೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ನಿರ್ಧಾರ ವಾಗಿರಬೇಕು, ಇದಲ್ಲದಿದ್ದರೆ ಇದನ್ನು Retained Earnings ನ ಶೀರ್ಷಿಕೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಇಡುವರು.

ಆಂಗ್ಲ ಅಂಕಣ:

http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/08/finance-and-management-34.html

ಹಣಕಾಸು ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಮತ್ತು ನಿರ್ವಹಣೆ - ೩೩

ಈ ಹಿಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು ಕಂಪನಿಗಳು ಏಕೆ ತೆರಿಗೆ ಕಟ್ಟಬೇಕು ಎಂಬುದನ್ನ ಅರಿತೆವು. ಇಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು ಮತ್ತೆ ಈ P & L ಹೇಳಿಕೆಯನ್ನು ಕೂಲಂಕುಶವಾಗಿ ಅರಿಯೋಣ ಹಾಗು ಇದನ್ನು ಹೇಗೆ ತಯಾರು ಮಾಡುವರು ಎಂದು ಕೂಡ ತಿಳಿಯೋಣ.

ಸರಳವಾಗಿ ವಿವರಿಸುವುದಾದರೆ ಲಾಭವೆನ್ನುವುದು ಮಾರಾಟದ ಬೆಲೆ - ಖರ್ಚಾದ ವೆಚ್ಚ. ಯಾವುದೇ ಕಂಪನಿಗೆ ತನ್ನ ಉತ್ಪನ್ನ ಅಥವಾ ಸೇವೆಯನ್ನು ಮಾರುವುದರಿಂದ ಆದಾಯವು ಸಿಗುವುದು. ಇದನ್ನು Sales ಎಂದು ಒಟ್ಟಾಗಿ ತೋರಿಸುವರು. ಆದರೆ ಈ ಉತ್ಪನ್ನ ಅಥವಾ ಸೇವೆಯನ್ನು ಕೊಡಲು/ ಮಾರಲು ಕಂಪನಿಯು ಖರ್ಚು ಮಾಡಬೇಕಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಈ ಹಣವನ್ನು Cost of Goods Sold (COGS) ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯುವರು. ಹಾಗಾಗಿ P & L ನ್ನು ಹೀಗೆ ಬರಿಯಬಹುದು.

ಲಾಭ (Profit) = Sales - COGS

ಈ ಹಂತದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು ಹಿಂದೆ ಕಲಿತ ಕೆಲವು ವಿಚಾರಗಳಾದ depreciation, amortization , ತೆರಿಗೆ ಗಳನ್ನು ಪರಿಗಣಿಸಿಲ್ಲ.  ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಈ ಮೇಲೆ ಪಡೆದ ಲಾಭವನ್ನು ನಿವ್ವಳ ಲಾಭ ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯಲಾಗದು, ಇದನ್ನು "Gross Profit" ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯುವರು.

ಕಂಪನಿಗಳು ತಮ್ಮದೇ ಆದ ಸಂಶೋಧನೆ ಮತ್ತು ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿ ಯ R&D ಘಟಕವನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿರುತ್ತದೆ. ಇಲ್ಲಿನ ಚಟುವಟಿಕೆ ಗಳು ಒಂದು ವರ್ಷದಲ್ಲೇ ಮುಗಿಯದು, ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಪ್ರತಿವರ್ಷ ಇದರ ಮೇಲೆ ಖರ್ಚು ಆಗುತ್ತಿರುತ್ತದೆ. ಇದನ್ನು "General Operating Expenses (R&D)" ಮುಖ್ಯಾಂಶದ ಅಡಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ತೋರಿಸುವರು. ಇದರೊಟ್ಟಿಗೆ ಪೇಟೆಂಟ್ ಮತ್ತು ಸ್ಥಿರಾಸ್ತಿಗಳಿಗೆ ಪ್ರತಿ ವರ್ಷ ಹಣವನ್ನು ಪಾವತಿಸಬೇಕಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಇದನ್ನೂ ಕೂಡ ಲಾಭದಿಂದ ಕಳೆಯಬೇಕು. ಇವನ್ನೆಲ್ಲ ಕಳೆದ ಮೇಲೆ ಇನ್ನೊಂದು ಉಳಿದ ಭಾಗವಿರುತ್ತದೆ. ಅದನ್ನು "Operating Income" ಎನ್ನುವರು. ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಕೈ ಯಲ್ಲಿ ಏನು ಕೊನೆಗೆ ಸಿಗುವುದು ಎನ್ನುವುದನ್ನು ಪಡೆಯಲು ಈ "Operating Income" ದನ್ನು ಕೂಡ ಪರಿಗಣಿಸ ಬೇಕು. 

ಇನ್ನು ಉಳಿದ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಇಂದು ಹೇಳಿ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ ಹೊರೆಯನ್ನು ಮನಕ್ಕೆ ನೀಡದಿರೋಣ. ಈ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಮುಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ಮುಂದುವರಿಸೋಣ. 

ಆಂಗ್ಲ ಅಂಕಣ:

http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/08/finance-and-management-33.html

Organization Theory - 14

In the last blog, we discussed a very important concept - "span of control". In today's blog, we would discuss another concept called relevant to complexity - "Spatial Differentiation"

In the earlier blog when we took the example of IBM and understood the various dimensions of complexity, we mentioned that the offices of IBM are spread over a lot of geographical locations. 

In today’s blog, we take the example of KTA Associates which is a company in the field of Executive search. Their offices are as shown in the diagram below. 

They have 54 offices spread across 38 countries!

The core function of the company is in the area of HR services to corporate, but so the number of departments would be small. If we link it back to the blog where we discussed Henry Mintzberg's model, we see that the operating core would be spread across continents but doing a similar kind of task. However given that the offices are spread across continents it would be difficult for people to really communicate with one another (the vocabulary used even in the same language would be different)

Thus, we could safely understand that the greater the spatial differentiation, the greater complexity.

Read in Kannada:

Organization Theory - 13

In the last blog, we began a discussion about vertical differentiation; we continue from there and begin our discussion about very closely knit topic - "span of control" in today's blog.

Simply put, "span of control" would mean the number of subordinates that a manager can direct effectively. Now let’s take an example to see why this span of control becomes important to be considered when one is designing any organization. 

If I have a single person reporting to me, I would be able to spend good amount of time to ensure that he is able to perform the task the way I want him to. My time still remains constant in a day - say 8 hours out of which I spend around 4 hours discussing and building an individual, the remaining 4 hours I spend doing the other tasks that I need to. 

Now, Assume I add another person to the existing individual, so now I guide 2 people. The time I am able to devote to the guiding process is now shared by 2 people. It would ease out if these 2 people are doing the same kind of task, but if it is different, then the attention required would be higher. Imagine the scenario if we have more people - say 4, 10, 20!

There is a limit on the number of people we can effectively coordinate with - this is the ideal span of control. These people report directly to you.

If we have say an organization with 4096 employee and a span of control of 4 people, and another with span of control of 8 people then the 2 structures would look something like this.

Clearly, a taller structure enables closer monitoring of the subordinates by the superior, while the communication as shown the last blog would be taking a beating given the larger number or levels in the hierarchy. The case would be a reverse when we have a wider span of control - the communication would be better but the monitoring of the subordinates would take a longer time. 

It would be good to note that there is no clear answer - there is a trade off that has to be decided upon. In addition to the number of employee (size of the organization), one needs to also consider the nature of the job, and also the nature of the person in the position which would really define the "right" span of control.

Read in Kannada:

Organization Theory - 12

In an earlier blog, while discussing about the dimensions of "complexity" we did mention about "vertical differentiation", in from this blog onwards we discuss the concept of vertical differentiation, but before that we would love to share this small picture with you which we received in one of the mail forwards.

In this simple example, we see there are just 6 levels of the hierarchy - 

CEO

|

Manager

|

Department Head

|

Floor Manager

|

Supervisor

|

Staff

And a simple message to trickle down. The message gets completely lost in the process and is sent across with a completely different meaning. Though this could be understood as an extreme case of miscommunication, there is definitely some distortion that happens at every level and more the levels more the distortion of information.

The more levels that exist between top management and the operative staff; greater the potential of communication distortion. More time is spent in coordinating the various personal and more difficult it gets for the top management to oversee the actions of the staff.

Thus simply put, the greater the vertical differentiation, the greater the complexity!

Read in Kannada:

Organization Theory - 11

In the last blog, we discussed about "division of labor". In today's blog, we discuss about the concept of "specialization".

Specialization could be understood as - particular grouping of activities performed by an individual. If we have a second look at the way we have understood this, it becomes clear that we can have a specialization based on the task performed or based on the skills of the individuals. Thus, we can call them as:

• Functional Specialization
• Social Specialization

It is pretty clear that when we begin to divide the task into multiple smaller tasks which are simpler and repetitive in nature. Thus we could call it again as "division of labor". It would be interesting to note that. "Division of labor" creates a sort of substitutability amongst the various employees and helps the management easily replace them.

If the individual is "specialized" instead of the work that is being performed, we call it "social specialization" - e.g. Engineers, nuclear physicists etc. The only way to achieve such social specialization for the organization is hiring these professionals!

With an increase in the specialization, it follows that the amount of coordination and control between the various specializations adds up - thus it would increase the "complexity" of the organization compared to the single person doing everything!

Read in Kannada:

Organization Theory - 10

In the earlier blog, we looked at the case of IBM to understand the various aspects of complexity. To understand the meaning of "Horizontal differentiation" we begin the journey today with a very common place concept we have hear of "division of labor".

In ancient days we had specialized experts in their crafts whom in some cases called artisans, carpenters, etc. As late at the early part of 1900s we could see people who were very interested in the "art" building cars, getting along all the components of a car and building them. It wouldn’t be surprising given the varying skills that go into making a car - that it would have taken them anywhere between 3-6 months to prepare a single car! But today we have Toyota which has the capability of actually churning out a car every second!

Now this journey from one person "crafting" a car to the present day one car every second didn’t happen in a go. We would definitely deal with the variety of changes that have happened in the manufacturing processes sometime in the future, but what we would discuss today is the first step that happened in this direction - "division of labor".

The craft of building a car was broken down into a series of activities, say designing the exterior, preparing the chassis, etc. The different activities when focused by an individual in a team would reduce the strain on individual building the complete car - therefore overcoming the physical limitations to a certain extent. Since a particular task is done by a specific person, it would enable the person develop a certain degree of specialization and expertise enabling to enhance the speed of operations. Efficiency creeps in due to this special focus. As the person spends time on a specific activity, he would work at easing his job by creating special inventions also which further enhances the efficiency in the long run!

As the division of labor increases, departments with a specific focus begin to be built! This is the birth of departmentalization.

In the next blog we would discuss a bit more on the concept of "specialization" that we discussed in here.

Read in Kannada:

Organization Theory - 9

In the last blog we took a simple example to understand the various variables that are used to understand the organization. Now we take a look back the dimensions of organization and understand the first dimension of "Complexity" in the context of an organization.

Let’s take for example sake a large organization - say IBM. 

We can check the website of the company at this link. It would be good to know a bit about the company and its history - instead of repeating a story; it would be good to check the story out here. One could learn specifically about the Indian Page at this Wikipedia link.

We could easily see that the company has its offices spread across various continents and countries - this link gives an idea about the extent to which the company has a presence globally.

We could also see that the company has different capabilities and caters to various different types of customers. It wouldn’t be easy to understand these unless we look at the following links and play with some of the combinations there- Services, Solutions, and Products.

Given that IBM is spread across various continents and offers a variety of services/products/solutions etc and managing the current number of employees it would need to have a large hierarchy to the CEO from a new joinee into the company.

In the above discussion we can classify the dimensions into 3 classes

1. Spatial differentiation: The geographical areas that a company expands over is represented by the spatial differentiation
2. Horizontal differentiation: The degree to which the horizontal separation is between the units - the product/service/solution focus etc is an indication this in the above discussion
3. Vertical differentiation: This refers to the depth of the organizational hierarchy measured in levels! - The new joinee at the bottom of the hierarchy to the CEO at the top of the global company!

Read in Kannada:

Organization Theory - 8

In the last blog, we defined a lot of terms. In today's blog we take a hypothetical situation and try to understand this better.

ABC Pvt Ltd is a company founded by Amit and his friend Bala. The company was set up just a few months back, and both Amit and Bala are heading the company and intend to take it great heights. The basic work of the company is into manufacturing mixer grinders. They have set up a factory in Peenya Industrial area and have currently employed 4 people, all are from have an electrical diploma and one of them is the supervisor who has prior work experience. Amit works on getting new business for the company while Bala manages the day to day operations of the company. Both Bala and Amit spend around 2 hrs a day catching up on the activities of the day and taking very important decisions relating to the direction of the company.

Let us now sit back and look at the story in a bit more detail.

The number of people in the organization is 6 (including the 2 founders). The hierarchy is pretty low since there is one supervisor, to whom 3 workers report and the other aspects are taken care by the Founders. We could look at the hierarchy pictorially as follows

(A + B)

|

Supervisor

|

(w + w + w)

Thus we see that this simple structure enables the founders to have a very close look at the day to day operations. Since the supervisor reports directly to the founders, who take the decision about the organization there is almost negligible delay in making decisions. There are certain operational decisions which the supervisor himself can take. From this we clearly understand that the organization is having a simple structure with sufficient autonomy given to the supervisor - which also indicates that there is delegation of the activity by the founder. The nature of the work suggests that there is little difference in the activity of the workers. To enhance the speed, formalization is done away with and the flexibility is high.

Thus we see that even a simple organization like ABC Pvt Ltd could be used to understand the various variables. Now it would be an interesting part to look at your own company and make an estimate of these things!

Read in Kannada:

Organization Theory - 7

In the last blog, we mentioned that we would begin defining the various dimensions of a business. In today's blog we begin this journey by defining some variable that are to be understood to really grasp the definition of detentions.

These variables are defined differently by different theorists, but what we define here is what is generally held meaning of these variables:

Administrative Component: The number of line supervisors, managers, and staff personnel relative to the total number of employees

Autonomy: The extent to which top management has to refer to certain typical decisions to a higher level of authority

Centralization: The proportion of jobs whose occupants participate in decision making and the number of areas in which they participate, or concentration of power arrangements, or an index reflecting the locus of decision making with respect do major and specific policies, the degree of information sharing between levels, and the degree of participation in long term planning

Complexity: The number of occupational specialties, the professional activity, and the professional training of employees.

Delegation of authority: The ratio of the number of specific management decisions the chief executive has delegated to the number he or she has the authority to make

Differentiation: The number of specialty functions represented in a firm or the difference in cognitive and emotional orientation amongst managers in different departments

Formalization: The extent to which am employee's role is defined by formal documentation

Integration: The quality of the state of collaboration that exists among departments that are required to achieve unity of efforts or plan or feedback used for coordination between organizational units

Professionalism: The degree to which the employees use a professional organization as a major reference, belief in service to the public, belief in self-regulation, dedication to one's field and autonomy.

Span of Control: The number of subordinates that an individual manager can and should supervise.

Specialization: The number of occupational specialties and the length of the training required by each or the degree to which highly specialized requirements are spelled out in formal job description for various functions

Standardization: The range of variables that is tolerated within the rules defining the jobs

Vertical Span: The number of levels in the authority hierarchy from the bottom to the top.

At this point it is pretty clear that most of the terms sound like a jargon, but it’s only through an experience of the industry and some explanation that these could be understood better. We shall make this attempt in the next few blogs before we jump to understanding the dimensions, but in many cases we would mix the 2 and highlight the point to be noted.

Read in Kannada

ಹಣಕಾಸು ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಮತ್ತು ನಿರ್ವಹಣೆ - ೩೨

ಈ ಹಿಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಅರಿತೆವು. ಇಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು ಕಂಪನಿಗಳ ಮೇಲೆ ತೆರಿಗೆಯನ್ನು ವಿಧಿಸುವುದರ ಕಾರಣಗಳನ್ನು ತಿಳಿಯೋಣ.

ಪ್ರತಿ ಕಂಪನಿಯು ಒಂದು ದೇಶ ಅಥವಾ ರಾಜ್ಯದ ಆಡಳಿತದೊಳಗೆ ಕಾರ್ಯನಿರ್ವಹಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. ಸರ್ಕಾರವು ರೂಪಿಸಿದ ಕಾನೂನು ಮತ್ತು ಯೋಜನೆಗಳ ಫಲವಾಗಿ ಉಂಟಾದ ಸಮಾಜದ ಲಾಭವನ್ನು ಪಡೆದು ಕಂಪನಿಗಳು ನಡೆಸಲು ಸಾಧ್ಯವಾಗುವುದು. ಸರ್ಕಾರವು ಅತ್ಯಂತ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಸಮೂಹ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆಯಾಗಿದ್ದು ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ ಮಟ್ಟದ ಅಪಾಯನ್ನು ತೆಗೆದುಕೊಂಡು ಜನರನ್ನು ಕಾರ್ಯಗತಗೊಳಿಸಲು ಯತ್ನಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. ಇದನ್ನು ಅದು ಕಾನೂನುಗಳ ಮೂಲಕ ನಿರ್ಭಂಧಿಸಿ ಮಾಡುವುದು. ನ್ಯಾಯಾಂಗವು ಜನತೆಗೆ ನ್ಯಾಯ ದೊರಕಿಸಿ ಸಮಾನತೆಯನ್ನು ಕಾಪಾಡಿ ದೇಶದ ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿಗೆ ಬಹು ಮೂಲ್ಯ ಕೊಡುಗೆ ನೀಡುವುದು. ಮುಂದಿನ ಹಂತದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು ವ್ಯವಹಾರಗಳಿಗೆ ಪರಿಣಾಮ ಬೀರಿದ ಹಲವು ಕಾನೂನುಗಳ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ನೋಡೋಣ.

ಈ ಎಲ್ಲ ಚಟುವಟಿಗೆಗಳಿಗೆ ಮತ್ತು ಇನ್ನು ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನದ್ದಕ್ಕೆ ಸರ್ಕಾರವು ಕಂಪನಿಗಳಿಂದ ಮತ್ತು ನಾಗರೀಕರಿಂದ ತೆರಿಗೆಗಳನ್ನು ವಸೂಲಿ ಮಾಡುತ್ತದೆ. ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ & ಲಾಸ್ ಅಕೌಂಟ್ ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಮೇಲೆ ವಿಧಿಸಿದ ತೆರಿಗೆಯನ್ನು ಹೇಳುವುದು.

ಈ ರೀತಿ ಸಂಗ್ರಹ ಮಾಡಿದ ತೆರಿಗೆಗಳನ್ನು ಸರ್ಕಾರವು ಪುನಃ ಇದೆ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ತೊಡಗಿಸಿ ಇನ್ನು ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ ಉನ್ನತಿಗೆ ಅನುವು ಮಾಡಿಕೊಡುವುದು. 

ಅಂಗ್ಲ ಅಂಕಣ:

http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/08/finance-and-management-32.html

ಹಣಕಾಸು ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಮತ್ತು ನಿರ್ವಹಣೆ - ೩೧

ಈ ಹಿಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು Depreciation ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಅರಿತೆವು. ಇಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು Amortization ಬಗ್ಗೆ ತಿಳಿಯೋಣ.

ನಾವು Depreciation ಬಗ್ಗೆ ವಿವರಿಸುವಾಗ ಭೌತಿಕವಾದ ಆಸ್ತಿಯ ಉದಾಹರಣೆಯನ್ನು ನೀಡಿದೆವು. ನಂತರ ಇದು ಎಲ್ಲ ರೀತಿಯ ಅಂದರೆ ಭೌತಿಕವಲ್ಲದ ಆಸ್ತಿಗೆ ಕೂಡ ಅನ್ವಯವಾಗುವುದು ಎಂದು ಅರಿತೆವು. ಈ Depreciation ನ್ನು ಭೌತಿಕವಲ್ಲದ ಆಸ್ತಿಗಳಾದ ಟ್ರೇಡ್ ಮಾರ್ಕ್, ಪೇಟೆಂಟ್, ಕಾಪಿ ರೈಟ್ ಇತ್ಯಾದಿ ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಸ್ವಂತದ್ದವುಗಳಿಗೆ ಅನ್ವಯಿಸಿದಾಗ ಅದನ್ನ Amortization ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯುವರು. 

ಇದನ್ನು ಉದಾಹರಣೆಯ ಜೊತೆಗೆ ಸರಿಯಾಗಿ ಅರ್ಥ ಮಾಡಿಕೊಳ್ಳೋಣ. ABC Pvt. Ltd. ಕಂಪನಿಯು ಒಂದು ಕ್ಯಾಲಿಬ್ರೇಶನ್ ಯಂತ್ರವನ್ನು ೩,೦೦,೦೦೦/- ಗೆ ಖರೀದಿಸಿತೆಂದು ಕೊಳ್ಳೋಣ. ಆ ಯಂತ್ರಕ್ಕೆ ೧೫ ವರ್ಷಗಳ ಪೇಟೆಂಟ್ ನ ರಕ್ಷಣೆ ಇದೆ ಎಂದು ಭಾವಿಸೋಣ. ಇದರರ್ಥ ಪ್ರತಿ ವರ್ಷ ೨೦,೦೦೦/- ನ್ನುAmortization ನ ಖರ್ಚು ಎಂದು ದಾಖಲಿಸುವರು. 

ಈ ಹಣ ಸಂದಾಯವನ್ನು ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯವಾಗಿ ಹಲವು ಕಂತುಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಮಾಡುವರು ಮತ್ತು ಇದನ್ನು amortization schedule ಎಂದೆನ್ನುವರು. 

ಆಂಗ್ಲ ಅಂಕಣ:

http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/08/finance-and-management-31.html

ಹಣಕಾಸು ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಮತ್ತು ನಿರ್ವಹಣೆ - ೩೦

ಈ ಹಿಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು ಬ್ಯಾಲೆನ್ಸ್ ಶೀಟ್ ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ & ಲಾಸ್ ಗಳ ನಡುವಿನ ಸಂಬಂಧಗಳ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಚರ್ಚಿಸಿದೆವು. ಇಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ & ಲಾಸ್ ನಲ್ಲಿನ ವಿವಿಧ ವಿಭಾಗಗಳತ್ತ ಗಮನ ಹರಿಸೋಣ. ಇವತ್ತು ನಾವು Depreciation ನ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಅರಿಯೋಣ.

ನಾವೊಂದು ವಸ್ತುವನ್ನು ಖರೀದಿಸಿದಾಗ (ಕಂಪ್ಯೂಟರ್ ಟೇಬಲ್) ಈ ಕೆಳಗಿನ ಸಮೀಕರಣವು ಸ್ವಾಭಾವಿಕವಾಗಿ ಅನ್ವಯವಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.  

ವಸ್ತುವಿನ ಬೆಲೆ = ತೆತ್ತ ಹಣ.

ಈಗ ನಾವಿದನ್ನು ಬ್ಯಾಲೆನ್ಸ್ ಶೀಟ್ ನಲ್ಲಿ ಹಾಕಿದಾಗ, ಅಸ್ಸೆಟ್ ನ ಕೆಳಗೆ ಕಂಪ್ಯೂಟರ್ ಟೇಬಲ್ ನ ಬೆಲೆ ಜೋಡಿಸಲ್ಪದುತ್ತದೆ, ಹಾಗೆ ಲಯಬಿಲಿಟಿ ಕಡೆಯಿಂದ ಕ್ಯಾಶ್ ನಲ್ಲಿ ಅಷ್ಟೇ ಮೊತ್ತವು ಕಡಿಮೆಯಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಇದು ಇಂದು ನಾವು ಖರೀದಿಸಿದಾಗ ಹೀಗೆ ಇರುವುದು. ಆದರೆ ಒಂದು ವರ್ಷದ ನಂತರ ಚಿತ್ರಣವು ಹೇಗೆ ಇರುವುದು? ಇದೊಂದು  ತೀರ ಸೂಕ್ಷ್ಮವಾದ ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ, ಯಾಕೆಂದರೆ ಅಷ್ಟರೊಳಗೆ ಟೇಬಲ್ ನ ಅವಸ್ಥೆ ಏನು ಬೇಕಾದರೂ ಆಗಿರಬಹುದು. (ಕೇವಲ ಟೇಬಲ್ ನ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಮಾತ್ರ ಯೋಚಿಸೋಣ, ಅದಕ್ಕೆ ನೀಡಿದ ಹಣವು ಟೇಬಲ್ ಆಗಿ ಬದಲಾಗಿದೆಯಾದ್ದರಿಂದ ಹಣದ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಯೋಚಿಸುವುದು ಬೇಡ)

ಈ ವರ್ಷದಲ್ಲಿ ಆ ಟೇಬಲ್ ನ ಕಾಲು ಮುರಿದು ಹೋಗಿರಬಹುದು, ಅದನ್ನು ಗುಜರಿಗೆ ಎಸೆದಿರಬಹುದು, ಅದನ್ನು ಮಾರಿರಬಹುದು, ಇಲ್ಲವೇ ಅದು ಇನ್ನು ಆಫೀಸ್ ನಲ್ಲಿ ಉಪಯೋಗಿಸಲ್ಪಡುತ್ತಿರಬಹುದು. ಇದ್ಯಾವುದೇ ಆಗಿದ್ದರು ಕಂಪ್ಯೂಟರ್ ಟೇಬಲ್ ನ ಬೆಲೆಯು ಅದನ್ನು ಖರೀದಿಸಿದ ಬೆಲೆಯಂತು ಆಗಿರಲಾರದು. ಅದು ಅದಕ್ಕಿಂದ ಕಡಿಮೆಯಾಗಿರುತ್ತದೆ. ವರ್ಷಗಳು ಕಳೆದಂತೆ ಅದರ ಮರು ಮಾರಾಟದ ಬೆಲೆ ಕಡಿಮೆಯಾಗುತ್ತ ಹೋಗುವುದು. ಇದನ್ನು ಅಕೌಂಟ್ ನ ಜಗತ್ತಿನಲ್ಲಿಯೂ ಪರಿಗಣಿಸುವರು, ಈ ಪ್ರಕ್ರಿಯೆಯನ್ನು Depriciation ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯುವರು.

ಹಾಗಾಗಿ depreciation ನನ್ನು ಭೌತಿಕ ಆಸ್ತಿಯ (tanglible asset) ಬೆಲೆಯನ್ನು ಅದರ ಉಪಯುಕ್ತತೆಯ ಸಮಯದವರೆಗೆ ನೀಡುವ ಪ್ರಕ್ರಿಯೆ ಎಂದು ವ್ಯಾಖ್ಯಾನಿಸಬಹುದು. ವ್ಯವಹಾರ ಜಗತ್ತಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಎಲ್ಲ ಚರಾಸ್ತಿಗಳನ್ನು ತೆರಿಗೆ ಮತ್ತು ಅಕೌಂಟ್ ನ ಉಪಯೋಗಕ್ಕೆ Depreciation ಮಾಡುವರು.

ಆಂಗ್ಲ ಅಂಕಣ:

http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/08/finance-and-management-30.html

ಹಣಕಾಸು ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಮತ್ತು ನಿರ್ವಹಣೆ - ೨೯

ಈ ಹಿಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ appropiation ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಚರ್ಚಿಸಿದೆವು. ನಾವು ಬ್ಯಾಲೆನ್ಸ್ ಶೀಟ್ ನಲ್ಲಿನ ವಿಭಾಗ ಗಳ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಆಳವಾಗಿ ನೋಡಿದೆವು. ಈಗ ಬ್ಯಾಲೆನ್ಸ್ ಶೀಟ್ ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ & ಲಾಸ್ ನ ನಡುವಿನ ಸಂಬಂಧವನ್ನು ಅರಿಯಲು ಸರಿಯಾದ ಸಮಯವೆಂದು ಅದರ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಶುರು ಮಾಡೋಣ.

ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ & ಲಾಸ್ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಅರಿಯಲು ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ ವಿವರಣೆಯ ಅಗತ್ಯವಿಲ್ಲವೆಂದು ನಮ್ಮ ಅಂಬೋಣ. ನಾವು ಈಗ ನೇರವಾಗಿ ಬ್ಯಾಲೆನ್ಸ್ ಶೀಟ್ ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ & ಲಾಸ್ ನ ನಡುವಿನ ವ್ಯತ್ಯಾಸದ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಚರ್ಚಿಸಲು ಶುರು ಮಾಡೋಣ.

ಬ್ಯಾಲೆನ್ಸ್ ಶೀಟ್ ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಆಗಿನ ಒಳಗಿನ ಚಿತ್ರಣ ವನ್ನು ನೀಡುತ್ತದೆ. ಇವತ್ತು ಬ್ಯಾಲೆನ್ಸ್ ಶೀಟ್ ನಲ್ಲಿರುವುದು ನಾಳೆ ಇರಬೇಕೆಂದಿಲ್ಲ. ಹೀಗಿರುವುದರಿಂದ ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಒಂದು ಕಾಲಾವಧಿಯ ಕಾರ್ಯ ಕ್ಷಮತೆಯ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಇದರಿಂದ ತಿಳಿಯಲು ಬಹಳ ಕಷ್ಟವಾಗುವುದು. P n L ಅಕೌಂಟ್ ಇದನ್ನು ನಿಖರವಾಗಿ ಹೇಳುವುದು. ಇದು ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಒಂದು ಕಾಲಾವಧಿಯ ಕಾರ್ಯ ಕ್ಷಮತೆಯ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಹೇಳುವುದು. ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ & ಲಾಸ್ ಅಕೌಂಟ್ ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಮಾರಾಟ ಮತ್ತಿನ್ನಿತರ ಆದಾಯಗಳು ನೇರ ವಾದ ಖರ್ಚುಗಳು (Direct Cost), ಮೇಲು ವೆಚ್ಚ (Overheads), ಬಡ್ಡಿಗಳು, ಆರ್ಥಿಕ ವೆಚ್ಚಗಳು (Finance Costs), ಕೊಡಬೇಕಾದ ಹಣ (Payables) , ತೆರಿಗೆಗಳು (Taxes). ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ & ಲಾಸ್ ಅಕೌಂಟ್ ನ ಒಟ್ಟು ಮೊತ್ತವು ಹೇಳಿಕೆಯ ಅವಧಿಯಲ್ಲಿನ ಉಳಿದ ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ ಅಥವಾ ಲಾಸ್ ಆಗಿರುವುದು.  

ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ & ಲಾಸ್ ಹೇಳಿಕೆಯ ಒಂದು ಪ್ರತಿಯನ್ನು ಇಲ್ಲಿ ನೋಡಬಹುದು.

ಇದರೊಂದಿಗೆ ಇನ್ನೊಂದು ಮುಖ್ಯ ವಿಚಾರವೆಂದರೆ ಬ್ಯಾಲೆನ್ಸ್ ಶೀಟ್ ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ & ಲಾಸ್ ಒಂದಕ್ಕೊಂದು ಹತ್ತಿರದ ಸಂಬಂಧವನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿದೆ. ಬ್ಯಾಲೆನ್ಸ್ ಶೀಟ್ ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರಾಫಿಟ್ & ಲಾಸ್ ಗಳು ಬಹಳ ಉಪಯುಕ್ತವಾದ ಹೇಳಿಕೆಗಳು, ಆದರೆ ಇವು ಪ್ರತ್ಯೇಕವಾಗಿ ಕೇವಲ ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಅರ್ಧ ಚಿತ್ರಣ ಮಾತ್ರ ಕೊಡಬಲ್ಲದು. ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಪೂರ್ತಿ ಚಿತ್ರಣ ಮತ್ತು ಕಾರ್ಯ ಕ್ಷಮತೆಯ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ತಿಳಿಯಲು ಇವೆರಡನ್ನೂ ಒಟ್ಟಾಗಿ ನೋಡಬೇಕು.

ಆಂಗ್ಲ ಅಂಕಣ:
http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/08/finance-and-management-29.html

Organization Theory - 6

In the last blog, we looked at organization and its 5 components briefly. In today's blog we get the element of variation across organization and discuss them briefly. 

It is quite intuitive that not every organization uses all the parts; some are simple while some could be visualized as having a complex interrelation between the components. 

It is to be understood that the central purpose of any organizational structure is coordination of the work that is to be achieved. We could classify organization into 5 groups based on the coordination focus of these organizations, they are:

• Simple Structure
• Machine Bureaucracy
• Professional Bureaucracy
• Divisionalized
• Adhocracy

To understand these types of organization, we need to understand some very essential terms used in organizational design; these are also considered dimensions of organization structure. These are:

• Complexity
• Formalization
• Centralization

We shall deal about these in the next few blogs.

Read in Kannada:
http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/10/blog-post_1362.html

Organization Theory - 5

In the last blog, we looked at a pictorial representation of the organization as an open system. In today's blog we look at various key sub-systems that function in an organization pictorially represented. 

We take the reference of this picture from an article by one of the leading management thinkers of our age - Henry Mintzberg. We can find the link here

An analysis of organizations of varying sizes, industries, domains, highlight 5 major components that exist in all organizations - but these vary from organization to organization. These are:

1. Strategic Apex: Organizations begin with an idea and are driven by the individual and the top management team - this is represented by Strategic Apex
2. Operating Core: The work force hired to do the conduct the basic work of the organization is represented by the Operating Core
3. Middle Line: The work force generally doesn’t coordinate directly with the top management and there are numerous managers in between - these forms the middle line
4. Technostructure: These are generally analysts who design systems dealing with formal planning and control of work
5. Support Staff: These people provide the indirect support to the rest of the organization, like - cafeteria, public relations etc

In the next few blog we look at how these 5 components change across different organizations.

Read in Kannada:
http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/10/blog-post_11.html

Organization Theory - 4

In the earlier blog, we began looking at an organization as a system and mentioned that we would continue the discussion in today's blog.

We could pictorially represent an open system in the following diagram.

The diagram illustrates that, the organization takes inputs like - people, raw material, physical resources, finance etc and through a transformation process (indicated by the motor - motor transforms say electricity into mechanical motion) create outputs as the products and services that it provides to its clients. However, these are not the only output! And is not always positive. It could be in the form of employee satisfaction, pollution and several such secondary outputs.

We could also look at the mechanism shown in the diagram by understanding them as subsystems. The transformation process itself could consist of several sub process like, production, maintenance, management, adaptation etc. In addition to these, there is also the subsystem of boundary spanning. The Boundary spanning system looks after the exchange of information with the external environment. This subsystem plays a very critical role in exploring opportunities and might be the very source of survival for organizations starting off!

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Organization Theory - 3

In the last blog, we looked at the importance of an organization. In today's blog we begin to understand a perspective which could be used to analyze organization - we try to understand an organization as a "system".

We could define a system as a set of interacting elements that acquires inputs from the environment, transforms them into output to the external environment. It is also clear that this system would have multiple subsystems - like production, maintenance etc. In fact these sub systems link very well to the earlier blog we have had about business functions.

When we take an organization in isolation, completely secluded from the surrounding environment, i.e. we consider the organization to be sealed off from the outside, it functions autonomously - we could call it as a closed system approach to understanding an organization. Such an organization is more hypothetical, and we need to include a lot of interactions with the external world - thus an "open system" is a better approach to understand the organization.

An organization would have to interact with the environment to survive; it has to adapt itself to the changes in the environment. The complexity of analyzing the open system is really enormous, and it is quite easy to understand that the internal systems approach is just a minor part of the larger open system analysis.

In the next blog, we shall pictorially understand this blog so that it is easier to remember.

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Organization Theory - 2

In the last blog we looked at some of the characteristics of an organization. In today's blog, we continue understanding the concept of organization further. 

The concept of organization as we know and understand today is a product of the industrialization era and the phases subsequent, so it’s not very old when compared to the human history. Post these organizations coming into existence, there have been a lot of strengthening on the legal aspects too to ensure that the interest of people is sufficiently taken care of. The forms of organization themselves have modified to suit the varying need.

Organizations in their present day understanding could be seen as existing for the following purpose:

• Bringing together resources to achieve desired goals and outcomes
• Produce goods and services effectively
• Facilitates Innovation 
• Use modern manufacturing and information technologies 
• Adapt to and influence a changing environment
• Create value for owners, customers and employees
• Accommodate ongoing challenges of diversity, ethics and the motivation and coordination of employees

It’s very critical for a manager to understand these points - organizations shape our lives, and well informed managers can shape organization.

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Organization Theory - 1

In the earlier blog, we learnt about the objectives of cost accounting and mentioned its relevance towards decision making. From today's blog, we would take a small detour to discuss various aspects of organization theory to really set the context for our discussion on other topics including finance in the future.

Before we begin this journey into understanding organization theory, it would be apt to look at the definition of organization. So this blog focuses on understanding and defining the term "organization".

Every day, we encounter numerous "organization" - the schools, hospitals, Infosys etc; all these have some characteristic in common. They are all:

• Social entities
• Goal Directed
• Are designed as deliberately structured and coordinated activity systems
• Are linked to external environment

It is common to see that every organization has policies and procedures that help scale up operations and grow, however it is people whom we find really driving organizations. It is their relationship with one another, their interaction that really enables organizations to attain their goals. It is this that organization theory deals with.

We will explore more about this as we begin discussing this further.

Read in Kannada:
http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/10/blog-post_8909.html

Finance and Management - 39

In the last blog we began looking at cost accounting and mentioned that at various points in time of the discussion series we might temporarily take detours to get other related concepts relevant to the discussion. In today's blog we discuss the objectives of cost accounting.

A source on the internet defined cost accounting as: "Cost accounting is an expanded phase of the general or financial accounting of a business concern which provides management promptly with the cost of producing or selling each article or of rendering a particular service". 

Thus, Cost accounting serves the following major objectives to achieve:

• Determining the Selling Price
• Controlling cost
• Providing information for decision making
• Ascertaining Costing Profits
• Facilitating preparation of financial and other statements

Since in our first blog we have mentioned that management relies heavily on decision making hence we would like to make specific mention that cost accounting would assist decision making by the manager in the following ways:

• Determination of cost-volume-profit relationship
• Make or buy decision
• Shut down or continue operations at loss
• Continuing with the existing machinery or replacing them by improved and economical machines.

Read in Kannada:
http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/10/blog-post_03.html

Finance and Management - 38

As mentioned in the last message, we would continue our discussion with the cost accounting concepts, however at various stages; it would be necessary to get to other concepts of organization and processes etc to really make the understanding of cost accounting really useful.  In today's blog we begin to understand the need for cost accounting.

Management to a great extent as we defined earlier is all about decision making. All the various specializations in management are essentially knowledge enhancements that would ease the dilemma for a manager. We began with discussing general accounting to assist the manager make decisions and see if the accounting practice used is apt in scenarios. Today we move to a more relevant managerial tool in the financial world called - cost accounting. It is generally also called managerial accounting given its utility to managers in decision making. There are still certain differences between the two, but for all practical purpose we will go by the understanding that both these are same.

Information about costs is very critical to a manager. The manager generally takes decisions only for the company he works for; there is no need for the information to be comparable to similar information from other organizations. The interest in the costs is primarily because the costs affect the price of the organizations' offering to its customers and there by the profit that it realizes.

We could continue this discussion in the next few blogs to clearly understand the concept.

Read in Kannada:
http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/10/blog-post_65.html

ಹಣಕಾಸು ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಮತ್ತು ನಿರ್ವಹಣೆ - ೨೮

ಈ ಹಿಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು Investment Allowance Reserve ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಅರಿತೆವು. ಇಂದಿನ ಅಂಕಣದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು Appropriation ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಅರಿಯೋಣ.

Appropriation ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಅರ್ಥದಲ್ಲಿ ಹಣವನ್ನು ಒಂದು ಉದ್ದೇಶಕ್ಕೊಸ್ಕರ ಮೀಸಲಾಗಿ ತೆಗೆದಿಡುವುದು. ಕಂಪನಿಯು ಯಾವ ರೀತಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಹಣವನ್ನು ಪಾಲು ಮಾಡಿಕೊಂಡಿದೆಯೋ ಅದು ಒಬ್ಬ ಹೂಡಿಕೆ ದಾರನಿಗೆ ಕಂಪನಿಯು ಹೇಗೆ ತನ್ನ ಹಣದ ವಿನಿಯೋಗವನ್ನು ನಿರ್ವಹಿಸುತ್ತಿದೆ ಎಂಬುದನ್ನು ಹೇಳುತ್ತದೆ.

ಇದನ್ನೇ ಅಕೌಂಟ್ ನ ಭಾಷೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಅಭ್ಯಾಸವಾದ, ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಲಾಭ & ನಷ್ಟದ ಖಾತೆಯ ಹಣವನ್ನು ವಿವಿಧ ರಿಸರ್ವ್ (generall reserve, contingency reserve etc.) ಗಳಿಗೆ ಹಂಚುವುದು. ಆದರೆ ಕಂಪನಿಯ ಡಿವಿಡೆಂಡ್ ಕೊಡುವುದು ಇದರಿಂದ ಬದಲಾಗದು. ಕಾರಣ, ಕಂಪನಿಯು ಡಿವಿಡೆಂಡ್ ನ್ನು ಇಂದಿನ ಅಥವಾ ಹಿಂದಿನ ಯಾವುದೇ ಲಾಭದಿಂದ ಖಾತೆಯ ಹೆಸರನ್ನು ಗಣನೆಗೆ ತೆಗೆದುಕೊಳ್ಳದೆ ಕೊಡಬಹುದು.

ಕೆಲವು ದೇಶಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಕೆಲವು ಪ್ರಕಾರದ ರಿಸರ್ವ್ ಗಳಿಗೆ ವರ್ಗಾಯಿಸುವುದನ್ನು ಕಡ್ಡಾಯಗೊಳಿಸಿರುವರು. ಈ ರಿಸರ್ವ್ ಗಳನ್ನೂ ಹಂಚಲು ಸಾಧ್ಯವಿಲ್ಲ

ಆಂಗ್ಲ ಅಂಕಣ:
http://somanagement.blogspot.com/2011/08/finance-and-management-28.html

Message

Over the last 37 blogs, we have understood some of the relevant concepts with respect to the financial statements. The next few blogs would be regarding the cost accounting which becomes very relevant to the manager in a dynamic environment.

Wish to see your continued support in our effort.

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